A 64-letter Alphabet

According to Dr. John Stamatoyannopoulos, University of Washington, associate professor of genome sciences and of medicine, for over forty years it has been assumed that DNA changes affecting the genetic code solely impacted how proteins were made—now it appears that this basic assumption about reading the human genome missed half of the picture. New findings highlight that DNA is an incredibly powerful information storage device, which nature has fully exploited in unexpected ways. For example, DNA consists of a 64-letter (codon) alphabet that spells out the genetic code. The letters (codons) are organized into words and sentences called genes. About 15% of the 64-letter (codon) alphabet are dual-use letters known as duons. They simultaneously specify both amino acids and something called transcription factor (TF) sequences. This means that many DNA changes that appear to alter protein sequences may actually cause disease by disrupting gene control programs or even both mechanisms simultaneously. What happens to trigger mutations?

 

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DNA Ancestry

As you may already know from high school biology, your complete set of genetic information is encoded within 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of your cells—the 23^rd pair typically being a XX or a XY pattern. Not all cells have a nucleus, by the way. Red-blood cells, for instance, have no nucleus. A chromosome is a single piece of coiled DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid, a biomolecule that holds the blueprint for how living organisms are built. 99% of all DNA in your body is found in your chromosomes. Segments of DNA called genes are passed down from parents to child and confer traits to the offspring. Humans have on average between 25,000-30,000 genes, usually in pairs (one from each parent). More recent research has shown that some individuals have an extra 1, 2, or 3 X chromosomes or extra Y chromosomes. Those additional patterns can alter some typical human biological functions. 

Genealogy, Geneology, Geneaology, or Genology

Shows such as ‘Finding Your Roots’ and ‘PBS Genealogy Roadshow’ seem to have heightened interest in biological ancestry. There appears to be some misunderstanding of which word actually represents the multiple spellings of the work genealogy. Data from WordTracker reported that over a two-month period:

·       10,722 searches were done for ‘genealogy’

·       5,988 searches were done for ‘geneology’

·       711 searches were done for ‘geneaology’

·       302 searches for “genology"

 For 25% of the population who are believed to have their “brain bent” in the right frontal lobe (where there are little if any written language functions) creative spelling comes with the territory. It’s easy for me to exhibit very creative spelling. Therefore, I checked several dictionaries and every one of them listed genealogy as the preferent spelling. (I’m not sure I ever used that specific spelling!) Anyway, it definitely got me thinking about the topic.

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Are Race and Ethnicity Synonyms?

Although they are often used as synonyms, they are not identical in meaning. The short answer is that race typically refers to a person’s physical appearance. Ethnicity generally referrers to a person’s cultural markers, not their physical appearance. Admittedly my brain struggles to understand some of the current problems surrounding race or ethnicity—ethnic differences as I am told is now the correct term. I grew up believing that most anthropologists recognize only 3 or 4 main races on this planet—although a 1998 study published in the Scientific American estimated there were 5,000 ethnic groups—although we’re all members of the same species, Homo sapiens. I also grew up believing that abusive, violent, and destructive behaviors are unacceptable, period; and that those who engage in them need to understand that the way they are perceived by others results from the observation of their behaviors. I know that my life has been completely enriched through collaboration, interaction, and friendship with brains that are housed in bodies that have different racial or ethnic differences from mine. Our brains and hearts are all the same color. Cellular memory differs, too, but then epigenetics differs for every person on the planet because every brain is different. Differences are what makes the world go around! 

What does APD look like?

Antisocial Personality Disorder or APD is defined by the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fiftth edition, as "...a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood." These individuals may be witty, charming, and fun to be around; they may also disregard social norms and laws, repeatedly lie, place others at risk for their own benefit, and demonstrate a profound lack of remorse. In severe forms it may be referred to as sociopathic personality disorder or sociopathy. Technically the individual must be at least age eighteen for a diagnosis of APD to be made. Genetics and other biological factors, brain defects and injuries during developmental years, and growing up in a traumatic or abusive environment may be linked with APD. According to WebMD, individuals who break the law are at higher risk for having APD. For example, as many as 47% of male inmates and 21% of female inmates have the disorder. Fire-setting and cruelty to animals during childhood may be seen in the development of APD. Additional co-occurring disorders and complications may include imprisonment, drug abuse, violence, and attempted suicide or successful suicide. It is estimated to affect 0.6% of the population with APD more commonly diagnosed in males.

What does BPD look like?

According to the National Institute on Mental Health (NIMH), Borderline Personality Disorder or BPD likely arises from a combination of inheritable and environmental factors. BPD is a serious mental illness marked by unstable moods, behavior, and relationships problems. In 1980 it was included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, Third Edition(DSM-III) for the first time as a diagnosable mental illness. Most psychiatrists and other mental health professionals use the DSM to diagnose mental illnesses. Reportedly it was called ‘borderline’ initially because those with severe BPD may have brief psychotic episodes believed to be versions of other mental illnesses and challenges. Common symptoms revolve around problems with regulating emotions and thoughts, impulsive and reckless behavior, and unstable relationships with other people. Individuals with BPD tend to have high rates of other co-occurring disorders, such as depression, anxiety disorders, substance abuse, and eating disorders, along with self-harm, suicidal behaviors, and sometimes successful suicides. BPD is more common than both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, affecting two percent of adults, mostly young women.

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BPD or APD

Recently several young people approached me and asked if I could help them understand the difference between BPD and APD—because they had heard that these two mental disorders varied in incidence based on gender. With all the acronyms floating around these days I thought it prudent to ask what those two acronyms referred to in their vocabularies. After all, they could stand for bad puppy dog or AWOL puppy dog! They laughed and said, "We wondered if you would make an assumption or ask a question." [They had heard me talk about JOT behaviors, the 'J' representing 'jumping to conclusions.'] It turned out that a classmate had been diagnosed with Borderline Personality Disorder or BPD and they wanted to know how that differed from Antisocial Personality Disorder or APD. Interestingly enough, I had just spent some time with a cousin of mine who happens to have spent the last fifty years as a practicing psychiatrist; and who went into the field after a student at the same University committed suicide. In the conversation my cousin mentioned that in his experience BPD is diagnosed much more commonly in females and that likely APD is the male equivalent, it being diagnosed much more commonly in males.